Mr Chancellor:

Graeme Milbourne Clark is the Founder and Director of The Bionic Ear Institute.

He graduated from the University of Sydney in 1957 with the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery with Honours, taking First Place in the Final Year Examination, and subsequently graduated with the degrees of Master of Surgery and Doctor of Philosophy.

He began basic research at the University of Sydney in 1967 on electrical stimulation of the auditory nerve fibres: his research showed that multiple-channel (electrode) stimulation rather than a single-channel cochlear implant would be required for the management of a severe-to-profound hearing loss.

His work to develop the multiple-channel cochlear implant and take it through to commercial reality occupied eighteen years to 1985. It has to be said that he embarked upon the pursuit of this vision in spite of considerable initial scepticism in the academic community of that time.

In 1970 he became the Foundation Professor of Otolaryngology at the University of Melbourne, and in 1984 he founded The Bionic Ear Institute. The implant resulting from the discoveries of Professor Clark and his co-workers is the first sensori-neural prosthesis to bring electronic technology effectively and safely into a direct physiological relationship with the central nervous system and human consciousness. It is also the first cochlear implant to give speech understanding to severely-to-profoundly deaf people, and to bring spoken language to children born deaf, so enabling them to communicate in a world of sound.

He has now led the research for over thirty-eight years that has resulted in improved speech perception with the cochlear implant, and now severely and profoundly deaf children can achieve near-normal speech and spoken language.

When Professor Clark retired in 2004 from his position at the University of Melbourne to become full-time Director of the Institute, he was made Honorary Laureate Professorial Fellow at the University of Melbourne. He is continuing to lead research to improve the cochlear implant so that, in particular, hearing in noise and the quality of music are better.

Professor Clark has been awarded honorary doctorates from the University of Hannover, Germany, the University of Sydney, the University of Wollongong and the Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science, and a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering.

He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons and an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine (London). He is also a Fellow of the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons.

Nationally and internationally he is the recipient of a great number of other awards, both civil and scientific, he has delivered numerous named lectures, and he has been the guest of honour and keynote speaker at many conferences.

Earlier this year Professor Clark was awarded the Prime Minister’s Prize for Science, which is given in recognition of outstanding achievement by Australians in science and technology which promotes human welfare, and he was appointed as a Companion of the Order of Australia
‘for services to medicine and to science through innovative research to further the development of cochlear implant technology for worldwide benefit.’

He is certainly one of Australia’s most eminent medical scientists, and indeed his work in the creation of the bionic ear is one of the greatest contributions to medical science ever made by an Australian.

Mr Chancellor, it gives me the greatest pleasure to present to you for admission to the degree of Doctor of Laws honoris causa Graeme Milbourne Clark.

Alison Crook AO
Deputy Vice-Chancellor and Vice-President (Resources)

2 December 2004

2004 Prime Minister's Prize for Science

Graeme Clark believes all children should have the opportunity to hear their own parents' voices.

Along the way he has overcome fierce medical criticism from colleagues and a series of technical, financial and ethical hurdles. And he isn't finished yet. At 69 years of age he is planning a new technological assault on deafness, and is developing radical plans to apply the concepts behind the bionic ear to repair spinal cords and other neural injuries.

Professor Graeme Clark AC receives the 2004 Prime Minister's Prize for Science for the discoveries which led to the first routinely used, successful and safe electro-neural interface with the central nervous system. His bionic ear enables deaf people to participate in a world of sound.

Graeme's development is no single invention but rather the result of dedicated vision and focused effort over the whole of his research career.

As a child Graeme became known as "the Bunsen burner kid" due to his interest in science and his fascination for the life and works of Pasteur and Curie. He also helped his deaf father in the family pharmacy and attempted to head off trouble when his father couldn't hear a customer's request for "embarrassing products".

Because there are more than 10,000 nerves in the cochlea, it became a major challenge. Graeme realised that multiple channels were needed an array of wires interfacing with separate groups of nerve cells But he couldn't work out how to place the wires inside the shell-like, helical, cochlear duct.

He solved this problem at the beach. Playing with sea shells and dune grasses, he realised that a blade of grass of the right grade of stiffness would curl around the shell. In 1978, Graeme implanted the first bionic ear in Rod Saunders. The operation showed for the first time that a deaf person could hear running speech.

Graeme and his scientific and commercial partners overcame many challenges along the way in speech processing, in preventing infection leading to meningitis, in obtaining US government approval for the use of the bionic ear in adults and children. And they also faced near insurmountable financial hurdles. One such log jam was broken when Reg Ansett agreed to run a telethon on Channel 10 to support the development of the first implant.

Graeme was instrumental in getting Australian Government support to establish Cochlear Limited an Australian biomedical business success story. Today, Cochlear supplies more than two thirds of the global market for bionic ears.

What's next for Graeme Clark? He believes that biomechanics, electronics, materials science and microtechnology have advanced sufficiently to allow the next big jump to a bionic ear capable of restoring nearly normal hearing. And he believes that the underlying technologies involved in linking electronics to nerve cells could also be used to treat many other nerve injuries. So he's committed himself and the Bionic Ear Institute to a new, enlarged mission to develop a new generation of bionic ears, and other neural prostheses for spinal cord and nerve repair.

Admission to the Honorary Fellowship
The Royal College of Surgeons of England

Professor Graeme Clark

There are few names that are better known in ENT surgery and few people who have made as great a contribution, particularly in the field of cochlear implantation; Professor Clark has contributed enormously to the quality of life of many thousands of patients worldwide.

Graeme Milbourne Clark qualified in 1957 and rapidly acquired Fellowships from Edinburgh, England and Australia, the country where he has spent his career. Subsequently the University of Sydney awarded him an MS for his work on the structure of the nose, as well as a PhD for research on the middle ear and mechanisms of hearing. These marked the beginning of an immensely impressive career in academic ENT surgery at the University of Melbourne, where Professor Clark founded the academic department and has been head of the cochlear implant programme since 1970. He was thus one of the earliest inventors, investigators and implementers of cochlear implantation, work that has been supported by innumerable research grants and resulted in nearly 1,000 academic papers, books, monographs, chapters, reports and presentations.

It is therefore no surprise that Professor Clark was made an Officer of the Order of Australia in 1983 and a Companion of the Order of Australia in 2004 for services to medicine. He has received numerous honorary doctorates and awards, including Honorary Membership of the American Otological Society and Senior Australian of the Year, both in 2002. He is an Elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science, the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, and the Royal Society of London, as well as an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine. He has been guest of honour at meetings around the world.

As cochlear implantation becomes ever more popular for the profoundly deaf and even for the standard of care in deaf children before they learn to speak, Professor Clark can take much of the credit for this huge medical advance. He is without question an outstanding recipient of an Honorary Fellowship from The Royal College of Surgeons of England.

Wednesday 7 July 2004

The University of Melbourne Academic Board
Minute of Appreciation for Laureate Professor Graeme Clark

After graduating in medicine from the University of Sydney, Graeme Clark commenced his career as an ENT surgeon. He soon returned to the University of Sydney to complete a Master of Surgery and Doctor of Philosophy. He was subsequently appointed Foundation Professor of Otolaryngology at The University of Melbourne in 1970 and quickly established his research to develop a multiple-channel cochlear implant. Within eight years a patient received the world's first fully implanted multiple-channel cochlear implant. A speech processing strategy that enabled the understanding of some running speech without the aid of lip-reading was also developed. These developments provided proof of principle of his innovative approach. The Commonwealth Government subsequently awarded a Public Interest Grant to fund commercial development of the device.

Within three years, the Australian firm Cochlear Limited had developed a commercial prototype and worldwide clinical trials had begun. In 1985 US Food and Drug Administration approval was granted and the Australian cochlear implant quickly established market dominance. Over 50,000 deaf people around the world now benefit from the cochlear implant, including over 20,000 children. The implant has been described as the first major advance to help deaf people since the advent of sign language 200 years ago.

For over 30 years Professor Clark has led the team who have continued to make further advances in cochlear implants, including the development of advances speech processing strategies, improved electrode designs and new or improved surgical, rehabilitation and clinical techniques. This on-going research has led to significant hearing improvements for implant users and continued market leadership for the Australian cochlear implant.

A wide range of Australian and international peer reviewed grants and contracts also testify to the quality and excellence of his work. In 1988 Professor Clark was awarded a "Centre of Excellence" by the Australian Research Council. His impressive publication list of over 350 peer-reviewed articles and publications reflects the scope and depth of his research and his major contribution to the body of scientific knowledge in the field of otology and hearing sciences.

Professor Clark's considerable contribution is not limited to cochlear implants alone. He has contributed key ideas in the development of a novel frequency specific objective hearing test device (SSEP), the development of the electrotactile hearing aid (Tickle Talker™) and also a combined cochlear implant and hearing aid (Combionic Aid). He also initiated the establishment of Australia's first university-based audiology training program and played a key role in the establishment of professional audiology in Australia.

Professor Clark is a champion of deaf people, particularly children. His early work in the 1970's to establish key groups, such as the Deafness Foundation, to improve public understanding of hearing loss and actively work towards the integration of deaf people into the hearing world testifies to his commitment. He has been a strong advocate of "oral-aural" education in Australia, against considerable opposition from advocates of sign language. His view is that only when children are able to effectively communicate using hearing and voice will they be able to become truly part of the "hearing world".

Professor Clark has been internationally and nationally recognized for his contributions by being made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, and being awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Medicine from the Medizinische Hochschule in Hannover in 1988, the degree of Doctor of Medicine (honoris causa) from the University of Sydney in 1989, receiving an Honorary Doctorate of Science from the University of Wollongong in 2002 and very recently an Honorary Doctorate of Engineering from Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan. He was awarded the Honour of Officer of the Order of Australia for services to medicine in 1983, and the Sir William Upjohn Medal from the University of Melbourne for outstanding contributions to medicine in 1997.

In 2000 he was appointed Laureate Professor of Otolaryngology by The University of Melbourne in recognition of scientific achievement.

In early 2004 Professor Clark will resign from the University to become the full-time Director of the Bionic Ear Institute. In recognition of his long-standing contribution to the University and to highlight the important on-going partnership between the University of Melbourne and the Bionic Ear Institute, the Senior Appointments Committee has recently approved the title Laureate Professor/Director while Professor Clark holds the position of Director of the Institute.

As members of the Academic Board we thank him for his outstanding contribution to the Faculty, the University and medicine in Australia and internationally over many years.

11 December 2003

Citation delivered by Professor Gerard Sutton, Vice-chancellor of the University of Wollongong
Admission to the degree of Doctor of Science (honoris causa)

Chancellor, I present Graeme Milbourne Clark Graeme Clark, the son of a pharmacist, began his career as a doctor. He graduated in medicine from Sydney University, initially in 1957, and was later awarded a Master of Surgery (1968) and a Doctor of Philosophy (1969). He has held a number of senior hospital appointments and has been Professor of Otolaryngology at the University of Melbourne since 1970.

In the year 2000, Nelson Mandela reflected that: "Twenty-first century advances in learning and science will certainly be even more breathtaking in scope and impact on human possibilities. Shall this century provide champions of human dignity and equality to match in their success that of the great innovators in the field of science and technology?" ("What makes a Champion" Sydney 2000). Graeme Clark's story shows that both kinds of champion, not only can, but do exist and in the one, extraordinary individual. He is both an outstanding empirical scientist and a quiet crusader for the dignity and potential of each person.

Professor Clark is the inventor of the Cochlear Bionic Ear Implant. His research has given the gift of hearing to profoundly deaf people throughout the world. To date 33,000 people in 123 countries have benefited, including 15,500 children.

Unlike some other high-profile pioneers in science these days, Graeme Clark's motivation is not self-interest; it has grown from first hand experience with deafness in his own family, from a brilliant mind that delights in scientific discovery and from a deep sense of humanity. His research and publication records reveal an indefatigable and outstanding effort. He devoted over 20 years to the development of the Cochlear Bionic Ear Implant and is the Founder and Director of The Bionic Ear Institute and Head of the Cochlear Implant Clinic at the Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital.

The University of Wollongong is proud to acknowledge Professor Clark as a colleague. He is collaborating with our Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, exploring the capability of its "smart" materials to further improve the bionic ear. This collaboration has already led to a novel polymer coating that reduces the force required, and thus the chance of any internal damage, during insertion of the implant. More exciting breakthroughs are promised, including the use of polymers in providing a much more efficient surface for communicating with nerve cells. The eventual goal is to assist nerve regeneration, a development which will reach beyond the bionic ear research to a much wider application.

His research colleagues value Graeme Clark for his humility and his inclusive approach. An internationally acclaimed scientist, he gives his time to mentor others, especially young researchers. In this, Professor Clark exemplifies another of Nelson Mandela's propositions that "no individual achieves and performs in isolation. It is that relationship of the champion to the team, the leader to the collective, the achieving individual to the group and community" (ibid, 2000).

Graeme Clark's achievement has been recognised widely by his peers and by his country. He is an elected Fellow of both the Australian Academy of Science and the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering. Two years ago, the Australian Institute of Political Science honoured him as one of the outstanding scientists of the 20th century. He was made an Officer of the Order of Australia for services to medicine and is Senior Australian of the Year for 2001- 2002.

Chancellor, this University is privileged to add to the laurels borne modestly by this remarkable scholar and scientist. We are grateful that he has chosen to share with us his originality of thought, his enthusiasm and his high standards of collegiality. Today we applaud Graeme Clark's achievement and welcome him as a permanent member of our University community.

It is my pleasure and privilege to present Graeme Milbourne Clark for the award of Doctor of Science honoris causa.

2 August 2002

Citation for the presentation of the Sir William Upjohn Medal
The University of Melbourne (Dec 6, 1997)

Mr. Chancellor,

Professor Graeme Clark has made a most significant contribution to medicine in Australia and throughout the world. His distinguished service in medical research to alleviate the devastating effects of deafness through the cochlear implant are truly remarkable. His research team has led the field for over 20 years and ensured that Australia has developed and retained the leading position in this area of research and in the clinical application of the cochlear implant.

After graduating in medicine from the University of Sydney, Graeme Clark commenced his career as an ENT surgeon, but returned to the University of Sydney to complete a Master of Surgery and Doctor of Philosophy. He was subsequently appointed Foundation Professor of Otolaryngology at The University of Melbourne in 1970. He quickly established his research to develop a multiple-channel cochlear implant and within eight years a patient received the world's first fully implanted multiple channel cochlear implant. A speech processing strategy that enabled the understanding of some running speech without the aid of lip-reading was also developed. These developments provided proof of the principle of his innovative approach and a Public Interest Grant was subsequently awarded by the Commonwealth Government in 1979 to fund commercial development.

Three years later a commercial prototype was developed by the Australian firm Cochlear Limited and world-wide clinical trials had begun. In 1985 US Food and Drug Administration approval was granted and the Australian cochlear implant quickly established itself as the world leader. Over 16,000 deaf people around the world now benefit from the cochlear implant, including over 6,000 children. The implant is the first advance too, for deaf people unable to benefit from hearing aids since the advent of sign language 200 years ago.

Graeme Clark has led the team who have made further advances in the on-going development of the cochlear implant, including the development of advanced speech processing strategies, improved electrode designs and new or improved surgical, rehabilitation and clinical techniques, which have ensured the continued market leadership of the Australian Cochlear Implant. Dozens of patents have been lodged attesting to the novelty and originality of his work. Internationally he is acknowledged as the pioneer of cochlear implants. He was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Medicine from the Medizinische Hochschule in Hannover in 1988 and the degree of Doctor of Medicine (honoris causa) from the University of Sydney in 1989 for his outstanding contribution to medicine.

A wide range of Australian and international peer reviewed grants and contracts also testify to the quality and excellence of his work. In 1988 Graeme Clark was awarded a "Centre of Excellence" by the Australian Research Council. His impressive publication list indicates the scope and depth of his research and his major contribution to the body of scientific knowledge in the field of otology and hearing sciences.

Graeme Clark's considerable contribution is not limited to cochlear implants alone. He has contributed key ideas in the development of a novel frequency specific objective hearing test device (SSEP), the development of the electrotactile hearing aid (Tickle Talker^TM) and also a combined cochlear implant and hearing aid (Combionic Aid).

Graeme Clark has also been a champion of deaf people, particularly children. His dream has always been that deaf people should not be disadvantaged by their handicap. His early work in the 1970's to establish key groups, such as the Deafness Foundation, to improve the understanding of hearing loss and actively work towards the integration of deaf people into the hearing world testifies to his commitment to his dream. He has been a strong advocate of "oral-aural" education in Australia, against considerable opposition from advocates of sign language. His view is that only when children are able to effectively communicate using hearing and voice will they be able to become truly part of the "hearing world".

Graeme Clark has been internationally recognized for his contribution to medical research by being made an Honorary Member of the Section of Otology of the Royal Society of Medicine, London and being awarded the Honour of Officer of the Order of Australia (AO) for services to medicine.

Mr. Chancellor,

    I present to you

        Graeme Milbourne Clark

The Clunies Ross National Science & Technology Award
For the Application of Science and Technology (1992)

Graeme Milbourne Clark AO

Professor Graeme Clark is the inventor of the 'bionic ear' which is considered the most important advance in the history of the treatment of profound deafness. The story of the cochlear implant is well known and has become a paradigm of medical science in which the initial idea was followed by years of leading a dedicated team in persistent experimentation and final commercialisation.

Graeme Clark's research commenced in 1967, the trial on children for FDA purposes commenced in 1986 and approval was received in 1990. With the commercialisation of the 'bionic ear' by the Nucleus Group (Cochlear Pty Limited) Graeme Clark's work became the model of persistent collaborative research resulting in the transfer of the basic research to international commercial application. His work in aid of profoundly deaf continues today.

A model 'hero' in the field of research application, Graeme Clark is presented with the Clunies Ross National Science & Technology Award as an outstanding example to be emulated by others.

Citation for Cook Medal
Royal Society of New South Wales (1992)

The James Cook Medal is awarded for "outstanding contributions to science and human welfare in and for the Southern Continent." The Cook Medal for 1991 is awarded to Professor Graeme Milbourne Clark, Foundation Professor of Otolaryngology at the University of Melbourne.

After graduating from the University of Sydney, he was a resident medical officer at two Sydney hospitals and a registrar at two English hospitals. He returned to the University of Sydney where he completed two higher degrees, a Master of Surgery and Doctor of Philosophy. Around this time Professor Clark started studying the ear and problems of deafness.

Fundamental research on brain cells led to behavioural studies on experimental animals and eventually to considerations of the possibility of developing a device to overcome deafness in the humans. An important question had to be answered, namely "could the inner ear be invaded surgically without damaging the very nerves that would need to be electrically stimulated." During the past 20 years Professor Clark and his team have carried out painstaking studies involving multi-disciplinary research in physiology, biology, surgery, engineering, speech science and related fields. Eventually a complete receiver-stimulator unit was implanted in a patient and a mini device was developed for use with children. The production of the multi-electrode cochlear implant or bionic ear means that many hundreds of totally deaf people are now able to hear.

Clearly Professor Clark has carried out fundamental research and difficult development work of the highest order. He is the leader in his field and he and his team are recognised world-wide for their pioneering work. It is significant that this work is the basis of an Australian industry for the production of aids for the deaf which are exported to more than twenty countries.

In view of the outstanding research and many achievements, not the least being nearly 400 publications, it is most fitting that Professor Graeme Clark joins the list of illustrious Cook medallists.

D.J. Swaine

Citation for the Degree of Doctor of Medicine (honoris causa)
The University of Sydney (1989)

Mr Chancellor:

I have the honour to present Professor Graeme Milbourne Clark, AO, for the conferring of the Degree of Doctor of Medicine (honoris causa).

Graeme Clark needs no introduction to the 15,000 totally deaf people who now hear again because of his research and development of the multielectrode cochlear implant or 'bionic ear'. It is a development of which the whole of Australia can be justly proud as the cochlear implant that is the work of Graeme Clark has been developed commercially in Sydney by the Nucleus Group and is now exported throughout the world. It is acknowledged currently as the leading device and the standard against which future developments are judged.

Graeme Clark undertook his research mainly at the University of Melbourne, but the University of Sydney has also played a major role in his career.

Graeme Clark was brought up in Camden as the son of a chemist. He undertook his undergraduate medical studies at the University of Sydney and qualified M.B.,B.S. in 1957. He was joint winner of the University Medal with Professor Susan Dorsch, the Pro-Vice-Chancellor.

After holding resident posts at The Royal Prince Alfred Hospital and The Royal North Shore Hospital, he entered the Anatomy Department and became prosector in 1963. He then undertook his otolaryngological studies in England and Melbourne gaining Fellowships of the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh, England and Australasia. He then returned to The University of Sydney as lecturer in physiology and it was here that the initial ideas which led to the development of the 'bionic ear' began.

In 1970 he became the William Gibson Professor of Otolaryngology at the University of Melbourne, the first Professor of Otolaryngology ever in Australia. It is an odd coincidence that the name of his chair should be the same as that of the second Professor of Otolaryngology who was appointed at the University of Sydney in 1983 and who has learnt to respect Graeme for his contribution which has helped so many deaf persons.

Professor Clark has received many honours for outstanding work. He received the Order of Australia in 1983 and was the winner of the first BHP Award in 1987. His device has featured on postage stamps and most recognised by a special award form the Commonwealth Government.

Graeme Clark is a devout Christian and, despite his achievements, remains modest and unassuming.

Mr Chancellor, I have the honour to present to you Graeme Milbourne Clark, Officer in the Order of Australia, Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery, Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Australasia, Edinburgh and England, Master of Surgery and Doctor of Philosophy for admission to the Degree of Doctor of Medicine (honoris Causa).

Citation for Honorary Doctorate
Medizinische Hochschule Hannover (1988)

Very Honourable Mr. Vice Governor,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Mistress Clark,
Dear Professor Clark,

I have the great pleasure to be here as the ambassador of the Rektor of the Medizinische Hochschule Hannover to award you the Honorary Doctorate or as we call it at home Doctor honoris causa.

I don't think it is necessary to explain the reasons why the gremium took this decision because everybody in this room, everybody in this University and many people throughout the country are well aware of the extraordinary merits you have achieved in Cochlear Implants.

It is important to emphasise, however, that your success did not happen by chance but was the result of a clear target orientated effort during more than twenty years.

At the time when you initiated the development of Cochlear Implants you found yourself in splendid isolation - and this is not meant geographically only.

Now since the dream became reality you are surrounded by quite a number of people who claim to be the father of success.

For me, as well as for your other scholars there is no doubt whatsoever that you are the mentor of the Cochlear Implant development, whether this is in the past, present or future. You succeeded not only because of your excellent and broad scientific background but even more so based on your special sensitivity for human feelings. You did not see your patients from the distance of a cool scientist but met them with the warmth of a medical doctor. You resisted the temptation of enjoying a success that would have been premature. You remained cautious, controlling the results again and again and searching for improvements. You had skills to transfer your enthusiasm to your team, you made the public listen to you and created interest amongst potential sponsors and governmental institutions. You even succeeded in winning the industry for your project. These are talents you as a pioneer of a new scientific branch had to dispose of should your findings be applied broadly in surgical medicine.

Finally you received the numerous visitors from all over the world with modesty and openness that made many of them to become your pupils.

I am one of them. The more I am happy to know you particularly closely connected with the Medizinische Hochschule now.

The Rektor, my team and the patients in Hannover do hope that the award of the Honorary Doctorate will not be celebrated in Melbourne today only but that you will come to Europe in the course of the next year giving us the chance of a celebration with you in Hannover as well.

My warmest personal congratulations!

Ernst Lehnardt

Citation by Professor Emeritus Sir MacFarlane Burnet

I have been very impressed by the emergence of the bionic ear as a practical proposition, but even more by the promise for the future that it seems to embody. It makes use of the arrangement in the cochlea for pitch recognition to bring electronic technology into direct functional relationship with the nervous system and the human consciousness. Maybe that unique relationship has no other parallel in the nervous system, and thus that direct link between electronics and physiology will find no other application to medicine. Nevertheless, I feel it may represent a new benchmark in the understanding of neural and mental function in terms of their physical components. Perhaps the work will not reach such a climax for centuries, but whatever may eventuate special credit will be made to Professor Clark and his colleagues for their pioneering and successful work. Professor Emeritus Sir MacFarlane Burnet, A.K., O.M., K.B.E., M.D., Ph.D. Lond., S.A.A., F.R.S. Nobel Laureate (Physiology and Medicine)

Photo courtesy of The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research